Hydrogen pumping proton exchange membrane electrochemical cell with carbon monoxide tolerant anode and method of making thereof

ABSTRACT

A carbon monoxide (CO) tolerant membrane electrode assembly (MEA) includes an ionically-conductive proton exchange membrane, an anode contacting a first side of the membrane and including a hydrophobic bonding agent, an ionomer bonding agent, first catalyst particles, second catalyst particles, and an anode gas diffusion layer (GDL), a cathode contacting a second side of the membrane and including a cathode GDL. The first catalyst particles are configured to preferentially catalyze oxidation of CO, and the second catalyst particles are configured to preferentially catalyze generation of hydrogen ions.

FIELD

The application claims the benefit of Indian Provisional Application No. 202111016645, filed on Apr. 8, 2021, which is hereby incorporated in its entirety.

FIELD

The present disclosure relates generally to electrochemical cells, and more particularly to fuel cell systems with an electrochemical cell used for hydrogen recovery from a fuel exhaust.

BACKGROUND

Fuel cells are electrochemical devices which can convert energy stored in fuels to electrical energy with high efficiencies. High temperature fuel cells include solid oxide and molten carbonate fuel cells. These fuel cells may operate using hydrogen and/or hydrocarbon fuels. There are classes of fuel cells, such as the solid oxide regenerative fuel cells, that also allow reversed operation, such that oxidized fuel can be reduced back to unoxidized fuel using electrical energy as an input.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIGS. 1, 2, and 3A are schematic diagrams of fuel cell systems according to various embodiments of the present disclosure.

FIG. 3B is a sectional perspective view of a central column of the fuel cell system of FIG. 3A.

FIG. 4 is a schematic side cross-sectional perspective view of a PEM electrochemical cell, according to various embodiments of the present disclosure.

FIG. 5 is a schematic side cross-sectional view of a pump separator including an electrochemical cell stack, according to various embodiments of the present disclosure.

FIG. 6 illustrates a method 600 of forming a membrane electrode assembly (MEA), according to various embodiments of the present disclosure.

SUMMARY

According to one embodiment of the present disclosure, a carbon monoxide (CO) tolerant membrane electrode assembly (MEA) includes an ionically-conductive proton exchange membrane, an anode contacting a first side of the membrane and including a hydrophobic bonding agent, an ionomer bonding agent, first catalyst particles, second catalyst particles, and an anode gas diffusion layer (GDL), a cathode contacting a second side of the membrane and including a cathode GDL. The first catalyst particles are configured to preferentially catalyze oxidation of CO, and the second catalyst particles are configured to preferentially catalyze generation of hydrogen ions.

According to one embodiment of the present disclosure, a method of forming a membrane electrode assembly (MEA) includes depositing a first anode ink on an anode gas diffusion layer (GDL), the anode ink comprising first catalyst particles and a first bonding agent, heat-treating the first anode ink to form a first anode layer bonded to the anode GDL, and hot-pressing the anode GDL to an anode side of a proton exchange membrane.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS

It will be understood that when an element or layer is referred to as being “on” or “connected to” another element or layer, it can be directly on or directly connected to the other element or layer, or intervening elements or layers may be present. In contrast, when an element is referred to as being “directly on” or “directly connected to” another element or layer, there are no intervening elements or layers present. It will be understood that for the purposes of this disclosure, “at least one of X, Y, and Z” can be construed as X only, Y only, Z only, or any combination of two or more items X, Y, and Z (e.g., XYZ, XYY, YZ, ZZ).

Where a range of values is provided, it is understood that each intervening value, to the tenth of the unit of the lower limit unless the context clearly dictates otherwise, between the upper and lower limit of that range and any other stated or intervening value in that stated range is encompassed within the invention. The upper and lower limits of these smaller ranges may independently be included in the smaller ranges is also encompassed within the invention, subject to any specifically excluded limit in the stated range. Where the stated range includes one or both of the limits, ranges excluding either or both of those included limits are also included in the invention. It will also be understood that the term “about” may refer to a minor measurement errors of, for example, 5 to 10%. In addition, weight percentages (wt %) and atomic percentages (at %) as used herein respectively refer to a percent of total weight or a percent of a total number of atoms of a corresponding composition.

Words such as “thereafter,” “then,” “next,” etc. are not necessarily intended to limit the order of the steps; these words may be used to guide the reader through the description of the methods. Further, any reference to claim elements in the singular, for example, using the articles “a,” “an” or “the” is not to be construed as limiting the element to the singular.

The first and second embodiments of the invention illustrate how the electrochemical pump separator is used together with a fuel cell system, such as a solid oxide fuel cell system. It should be noted that other fuel cell systems may also be used.

In the system of the first embodiment, a fuel humidifier is used to humidify the fuel inlet stream provided to the fuel cell stack. In the system of the second embodiment, the fuel humidifier may be omitted. A portion of the fuel cell stack fuel exhaust stream is directly recycled into the fuel inlet stream to humidify the fuel inlet steam. Another portion of the fuel cell stack fuel exhaust stream is provided to the separator, and the separated hydrogen is then provided to the fuel inlet stream.

FIG. 1 is a schematic showing a fuel cell system 100 according to the first embodiment of the present disclosure. The system 100 contains a fuel cell stack 101, such as a solid oxide fuel cell stack (illustrated schematically to show one solid oxide fuel cell of the stack containing a ceramic electrolyte, such as yttria stabilized zirconia (YSZ), an anode electrode, such as a nickel-YSZ cermet, and a cathode electrode, such as lanthanum strontium manganite).

The system 100 also contains an electrochemical pump separator 150 that electrochemically separates hydrogen from the fuel exhaust stream. The pump separator 150 may comprise any suitable proton exchange membrane device comprising a polymer electrolyte. Preferably, the pump separator 150 comprises a stack of carbon monoxide tolerant electrochemical cells, such as a stack of high-temperature, low-hydration ion exchange membrane cells. These cells generally operate in a temperature range of above 100° C. to about 200° C. Thus, the heat exchangers in the system 100 preferably keep the fuel exhaust stream at a temperature of about 120° C. to about 200° C., such as about 160° C. to about 190° C.

The system 100 also contains a fuel exhaust conduit 153 that operatively (i.e., fluidly) connects a fuel exhaust outlet 103 of the fuel cell stack 101 to an anode inlet 151 of the pump separator 150. The system 100 also contains a product conduit 157 that operatively (i.e., fluidly) connects a cathode outlet 158 of the pump separator 150 to a fuel inlet conduit 111 that operatively (i.e., fluidly) connects a fuel inlet 105 of the stack 101 to an external fuel source. The system 100 also contains a separator exhaust conduit 159 that operatively (i.e., fluidly) connects an anode outlet 152 of the pump separator 150 to an anode tail gas oxidizer (ATO) 140 or to an atmospheric vent.

The system 100 further includes a fuel humidifier 119 operatively connected to the fuel inlet conduit 111 and the separator exhaust conduit 159. In operation, the fuel humidifier 119 humidifies fuel in fuel inlet conduit 111, which includes recycled hydrogen, using water vapor contained the separator exhaust output to the separator exhaust conduit 159. The fuel humidifier 119 may comprise a polymeric membrane humidifier, such as a Nafion® membrane humidifier, an enthalpy wheel or a plurality of water adsorbent beds, as described for example in U.S. Pat. No. 6,106,964 and in U.S. application Ser. No. 10/368,425, both incorporated herein by reference in their entirety. For example, one suitable type of humidifier comprises a water vapor and enthalpy transfer Nafion® based, water permeable membrane available from Perma Pure LLC. The fuel humidifier 119 passively transfers water vapor and enthalpy from the fuel exhaust stream into the fuel inlet stream to provide a 2 to 2.5 steam to carbon ratio in the fuel inlet stream. The temperature of the fuel in the fuel inlet conduit 111 may be raised to about 80 to about 90 degrees Celsius, by the fuel humidifier 119.

The system 100 also contains a recuperative heat exchanger 121 (e.g., anode recuperator) operatively connected to the fuel inlet conduit 111 and the fuel exhaust conduit 153. The fuel heat exchanger 121 heats the fuel in the fuel inlet conduit 111 using heat extracted from the fuel exhaust in the fuel exhaust outlet 103 (e.g., conduit). The fuel heat exchanger 121 helps to raise the temperature of the incoming fuel and reduces the temperature of the fuel exhaust, so that it may be further cooled in the condenser and such that it does not damage the fuel humidifier 119.

If the fuel cells are external fuel reformation type cells, then the system 100 contains a fuel reformer 123. The fuel reformer 123 reforms a hydrocarbon fuel inlet stream into hydrogen and carbon monoxide containing fuel stream which is then provided into the stack(s) 101. The fuel reformer 123 may be heated radiatively, convectively, and/or conductively by the heat generated in the fuel cell stack 101 and/or by the heat generated in an optional ATO 140, as described in U.S. Pat. No. 7,422,810, filed Dec. 2, 2004, incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. Alternatively, the external fuel reformer 123 may be omitted if the stack 101 contains cells of the internal reforming type, where reformation occurs primarily within the fuel cells of the stack.

The system 100 also includes an air inlet conduit 130 fluidly connected to an air inlet 107 of the stack 101. Optionally, the system 100 includes an air preheater heat exchanger 125 operatively connected to the air inlet conduit 130 and configured to preheat the air in the air inlet conduit 130 using heat extracted from the fuel exhaust in the fuel exhaust conduit 153. If desired, this air preheater heat exchanger 125 may be omitted.

The system 100 also includes an air exhaust conduit 132 fluidly connecting an air exhaust outlet 109 of the stack 101 to the ATO 140. The system 100 preferably contains an air heat exchanger 127 operatively connected to the air inlet conduit 130 and the air exhaust conduit 132. This air heat exchanger 127 further heats the air in the air inlet conduit 130 using heat extracted from the fuel cell stack air exhaust (i.e., oxidizer or cathode exhaust) in the air exhaust conduit 132. If the air preheater heat exchanger 125 is omitted, then the air is provided directly into the air heat exchanger 127 by a blower or other air intake device.

The system 100 also optionally includes an optional hydrogen cooler heat exchanger 129 operatively connected to the product conduit 157 and the air inlet conduit 130. The heat exchanger 129 extracts heat from the separated hydrogen output from the pump separator 150, using air flowing through the air inlet conduit 130.

The system 100 may also contain an optional water-gas shift (WGS) reactor 128 operatively connected to the fuel exhaust conduit 153. The WGS reactor 128 may be any suitable device that converts at least a portion of the water in the fuel exhaust into free hydrogen (H₂). For example, the WGS reactor 128 may comprise a tube or conduit containing a catalyst that converts some or all of the carbon monoxide and water vapor in the fuel exhaust stream into carbon dioxide and hydrogen. Thus, the WGS reactor 128 increases the amount of hydrogen in the fuel exhaust. The catalyst may be any suitable catalyst, such as an iron oxide or a chromium-promoted iron oxide catalyst. The WGS reactor 128 may be operatively connected to the fuel exhaust conduit 153, between the fuel heat exchanger 121 and the air preheater heat exchanger 125.

The system 100 may operate as follows. A fuel inlet stream (also referred to as “fuel” or “fuel stream”) is provided to the fuel cell stack 101 through fuel inlet conduit 111. The fuel may comprise any suitable hydrocarbon fuel, including but not limited to methane, natural gas which contains methane with hydrogen and other gases, propane or other biogas, or a mixture of a carbon fuel, such as carbon monoxide, oxygenated carbon containing gas, such as methanol, or other carbon containing gas with a hydrogen containing gas, such as water vapor, H₂ gas or their mixtures. For example, the mixture may comprise syngas derived from coal or natural gas reformation.

As the fuel stream passes through the humidifier 119, the fuel stream is humidified. The humidified fuel then passes through the fuel heat exchanger 121 where the humidified fuel is heated by the fuel cell stack fuel exhaust. The heated and humidified fuel is then provided into the fuel reformer 123, which is preferably an external reformer. For example, the fuel reformer 123 may comprise a reformer described in U.S. Pat. No. 7,422,810, filed on Dec. 2, 2004, incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

The fuel reformer 123 may be any suitable device that is capable of partially or wholly reforming a hydrocarbon fuel to form a carbon-containing and free-hydrogen-containing fuel. For example, the fuel reformer 123 may be any suitable device which can reform a hydrocarbon gas into a gas mixture of free hydrogen and a carbon containing gas. For example, the fuel reformer 123 may comprise a catalyst coated passage where a humidified biogas, such as natural gas, is reformed via a steam-methane reformation reaction to form free hydrogen, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, water vapor and optionally a residual amount of unreformed biogas. The free hydrogen and carbon monoxide are then provided into the fuel (i.e., anode) inlet 105 of the fuel cell stack 101. Thus, with respect to a fuel flow direction in the fuel inlet conduit 111, the humidifier 119 is located upstream of the fuel heat exchanger 121, which is located upstream of the fuel reformer 123, which is located upstream of the stack 101.

The air or other oxygen containing gas (i.e., oxidizer) (also referred to as an “air inlet stream” or “air stream”) that is provided to the stack 101 through the air inlet conduit 130 is heated by the air heat exchanger 127, using the cathode exhaust in the air exhaust conduit 132. If desired, the air in the air inlet conduit 130 may also pass through the hydrogen cooler heat exchanger 129 and/or through the air preheater heat exchanger 125, to further increase the temperature of the air stream, before providing the air into the stack 101.

During operation, the stack 101 generates electricity using the provided fuel and air, and generates the fuel exhaust and the air exhaust. The fuel exhaust may contain hydrogen, water vapor, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, some unreacted hydrocarbon fuel such as methane, and other reaction by-products and impurities. The fuel exhaust may include about 25% of the fuel provided to the stack 101.

The fuel exhaust is output from the fuel exhaust outlet 103 and provided to the pump separator 150 by the fuel exhaust conduit 153. The pump separator 150 electrochemically separates at least a portion of the hydrogen (H₂) contained in the fuel exhaust. The separated hydrogen is output from the cathode outlet 158 and provided to the fuel inlet conduit 111 by the product conduit 157 where the hydrogen and is mixed with incoming fresh fuel. Preferably, the hydrogen is provided to the fuel inlet conduit 111 upstream of the humidifier 119.

The fuel exhaust stream in the fuel exhaust conduit 153 is first provided into the fuel heat exchanger 121, where its temperature is lowered, preferably to less than 200° C., while the temperature of the incoming fuel is raised. If the WGS reactor 128 and the air preheater heat exchanger 125 are present, then the fuel exhaust is provided through the WGS reactor 128 to convert at least a portion of the water vapor and a majority of the residual carbon monoxide into carbon dioxide and hydrogen. The temperature of the fuel exhaust is then further reduced while passing through the air preheater heat exchanger 125, by transferring heat to the air in the air inlet conduit 130. The temperature of the fuel exhaust may be reduced to from about 90 to 110° C., for example.

The fuel exhaust is then provided to the anode inlet 151 of the pump separator 150 via fuel exhaust conduit 153. The pump separator 150 may be configured to separate a majority of the hydrogen from the fuel exhaust, such as about 85% of the hydrogen in the fuel exhaust stream. Water vapor, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide and remaining hydrocarbon gas remaining in the fuel exhaust may be provided to the humidifier 119 by separator exhaust conduit 159.

In the fuel humidifier 119, a portion of the water vapor in the fuel exhaust is transferred to the fuel in the fuel inlet conduit 111 to humidify the fuel. The fuel may be humidified to 80° C. to 90° C. dew point. The remainder of the fuel exhaust stream is then provided into the ATO 140 along with the air (i.e., cathode) exhaust from the stack 101, where the gasses are oxidized to provide low quality heat. The exhaust from the ATO may be provided to an ATO exhaust conduit 161. Heat from the ATO 140 may be used to heat the fuel reformer 123, it may be provided to other parts of the system 100, or may be provided to devices outside the system 100, such as a building heating system.

The hydrogen separated by the pump separator 150 is output from the cathode outlet 158 and provided by the product conduit 157 to the fuel inlet conduit 111, where it is mixed with incoming fuel. If desired, prior to being provided to the fuel inlet conduit 111, the hydrogen maybe cooled in heat exchanger 129, where the hydrogen stream exchanges heat with air in the air inlet conduit 130. The temperature of the hydrogen is lowered in the heat exchanger 129 before being provided into the fuel inlet conduit 111. Thus, the hydrocarbon fuel is mixed with a low dew point, near ambient temperature, recycled hydrogen recovered from the anode exhaust gas with the electrochemical (hydrogen) pump separator 150.

Thus, with respect to the flow direction of the fuel exhaust, the fuel heat exchanger 121 is located upstream of the WGS reactor 128, which is located upstream of the air preheater heat exchanger 125, which is located upstream of the pump separator 150, which is located upstream of the humidifier 119 and the fuel inlet conduit 111.

FIG. 2 is a schematic showing a fuel cell system 200 according to the second embodiment of the present disclosure. The system 200 is similar to system 100 and contains a number of components in common. Those components which are common to both systems 100 and 200 are numbered with the same numbers in FIGS. 1 and 2 and will not be described further.

One difference between systems 100 and 200 is that system 200 preferably, but not necessarily lacks, the humidifier 119. Instead, a portion of the water vapor containing stack fuel exhaust stream is directly recycled into the stack fuel inlet stream. The water vapor in the fuel exhaust stream is sufficient to humidify the fuel inlet stream.

The system 200 may contain a fuel exhaust splitter 201, a recycling conduit 203, a blower or compressor 205, and a mixer 207. The splitter 201 may be a computer or operator controlled multi-way valve, for example a three-way valve, or another fluid splitting device. The splitter 201 may be operatively connected to the fuel exhaust conduit 153 and the recycling conduit 203. In particular, the splitter 201 may be configured to selectively divert all or a portion of the fuel exhaust in the fuel exhaust conduit 153 to the recycling conduit 203.

The mixer 207 may be operatively connected to the fuel inlet conduit 111, the recycling conduit 203, and the product conduit 157. The recycling conduit 203 may fluidly connect the splitter 201 to the mixer 207. The mixer 207 may be configured to mix fresh fuel with fuel exhaust provided by the recycling conduit 203 and/or hydrogen provided by the product conduit 157.

The blower or compressor 205 may be operatively connected to the recycling conduit 203. The blower or compressor 205 may be configured to move the fuel exhaust through the recycling conduit 203 to the mixer 207. In operation, the blower or compressor 205 controllably provides a desired amount of the fuel exhaust to the fuel inlet conduit 111, via the mixer 207.

The method of operating the system 200 is similar to the method of operating the system 100. One difference is that the fuel exhaust is separated into at least two streams by the splitter 201. The first fuel exhaust stream is recycled to the fuel inlet stream, while the second stream is directed into the pump separator 150 where at least a portion of hydrogen contained in the second fuel exhaust stream is electrochemically separated from the second fuel exhaust stream. The hydrogen separated from the second fuel exhaust stream is then provided into the fuel inlet conduit 111 by the product conduit 157. For example, between 50% and 70%, such as about 60% of the fuel exhaust may be provided to the blower or compressor 205, while the remainder may be provided toward the pump separator 150.

Preferably, the fuel exhaust first flows through the heat exchangers 121 and 125, and the WGS reactor 128, before being provided into the splitter 201. The fuel exhaust may be cooled to about 200° C. or less, such as to about 120° C. to about 180° C., in the air preheater heat exchanger 125, and prior to being provided into the splitter 201 where it is divided into two streams. This allows the use of a low temperature blower 205 to controllably recycle a desired amount of the fuel exhaust stream into the fuel inlet conduit 111, since such a blower may be adapted to move a gas stream that has a temperature of about 200° C. or less.

The blower or compressor 205 may be computer or operator controlled and may vary the amount of the fuel exhaust stream being provided into the fuel inlet stream depending on the conditions described below. In some embodiments, the system 200 may optionally include a selector valve 210 operatively connected to the product conduit 157. The selector valve 210 may be fluidly connected to an auxiliary device 212, such as a hydrogen storage device a hydrogen using device, such as a PEM (i.e., proton exchange membrane, also known as polymer electrolyte membrane) fuel cell in a vehicle or another hydrogen using device or to a hydrogen storage vessel. The selector valve 210 may be configured to divert a selected amount of the hydrogen in the product conduit 157 to the auxiliary device 212. For example, all or a portion of the hydrogen may be provided to either the auxiliary device 212 or the mixer 207, or the hydrogen may be alternately provided to the mixer 207 and the auxiliary device 212.

The blower or compressor 205 and the optional selector valve 210 may be operated by a computer or an operator to controllably vary the gas flow based on one or more of the following conditions: i) detected or observed conditions of the system 100 (i.e., changes in the system operating conditions requiring a change in the amount of hydrogen in the fuel inlet stream); ii) previous calculations provided into the computer or conditions known to the operator which require a temporal adjustment of the hydrogen in the fuel inlet stream; iii) desired future changes, presently occurring changes or recent past changes in the operating parameters of the stack 101, such as changes in the electricity demand by the users of electricity generated by the stack, changes in price for electricity or hydrocarbon fuel compared to the price of hydrogen, etc., and/or iv) changes in the demand for hydrogen by the hydrogen user, such as the hydrogen using device, changes in price of hydrogen or hydrocarbon fuel compared to the price of electricity, etc.

It is believed that by recycling at least a portion of the hydrogen separated from the fuel exhaust (i.e., tail) gas into the fuel inlet conduit 111, a high efficiency operation of the fuel cell system is obtained. Furthermore, the overall fuel utilization is increased. The electrical efficiency (i.e., AC electrical efficiency) can range between about 50% and about 60%, such as between about 54% and about 60% for the methods of the first and second embodiments when the per pass fuel utilization rate is about 75% (i.e., about 75% of the fuel is utilized during each pass through the stack). An effective fuel utilization of about 94% to about 95% is obtained when the per pass utilization is about 75%, and about 85% of the fuel exhaust gas hydrogen is recycled back to the fuel cell stack by the pump separator 150. Even higher efficiency may be obtained by increasing the per pass fuel utilization rate above 75%, such as about 76-80%. At steady-state, the methods of the first and second embodiments eliminate the need for generating steam when steam methane reformation is used to create the feed gas to the fuel cell. The fuel exhaust stream contains enough water vapor to humidify the fuel inlet stream to the stack at steam to carbon ratios of 2 to 2.5. The increase in net fuel utilization and the removal of heat requirement to generate steam increases the overall electrical efficiency. In contrast, without recycling hydrogen, the AC electrical efficiency is about 45% for a fuel utilization rate within the stack of about 75% to 80%.

FIG. 3A is a schematic diagram of a fuel cell system 300 according to the third embodiment of the present disclosure. The system 300 may include a number of components similar to the components previously described with respect to the systems 100 and 200 of the first and second embodiments, which may be numbered with the same numbers as in FIGS. 1 and 2, and will not be described in detail.

FIG. 3B is a sectional perspective view of a central column 301 of the fuel cell system 300 according to the third embodiment of the present disclosure. Alternatively, the central column 301 may be included in either of the systems 100, 200 of the first and second embodiments. Accordingly, the central column 301 may include a number of components similar to the components previously described with respect to the systems 100, 200, which may be numbered with the same numbers as in FIGS. 1 and 2, and will not be described in detail.

In addition to the components that were described with respect to the first and second embodiments, in the system 300, the column 301 may be disposed inside a hotbox 302 and a catalytic partial oxidation (CPOx) reactor 170, a CPOx blower 180 (e.g., air blower), a system blower 182 (e.g., main air blower), the anode recycle blower 205, and the mixer 207 may be disposed outside of the hotbox 302. However, the present disclosure is not limited to any particular location for each of the components with respect to the hotbox 302.

Referring to FIG. 3A, the CPOx reactor 170 receives the fuel inlet stream from a fuel inlet. The fuel inlet may be a utility gas line including a valve to control an amount of fuel provided to the CPOx reactor 170. The CPOx blower 180 may provide air to the CPOx reactor 170 during system 300 start-up, and then turned off during steady-state operating mode when the fuel cell stack 101 reach a steady-state operating temperature above 700° C., such as 750 to 900° C. The fuel in the steady state and/or a mixture of fuel and air during start-up may be provided to the mixer 207 by the fuel inlet conduit 111.

The system 182 may be configured to provide an air stream (e.g., air inlet stream) to the air preheater heat exchanger 125 through air inlet conduit 130. The ATO exhaust stream flows from the ATO 140 to the air heat exchanger 127 (e.g., cathode recuperator) through the ATO exhaust conduit 161. Exhaust flows from the air heat exchanger 127 to the steam generator 160 through the ATO exhaust conduit 161. Exhaust flows from the steam generator 160 and out of the hotbox 302 through the ATO exhaust conduit 161.

Water flows from a water source 190, such as a water tank or a water pipe, to the steam generator 160 through water conduit 163. The steam generator 160 converts the water into steam using heat from the ATO exhaust provided by the ATO exhaust conduit 161. Steam is provided from the steam generator 160 to the mixer 207 through the water conduit 163. Alternatively, if desired, the steam may be provided directly into the fuel inlet stream and/or the anode exhaust stream may be provided directly into the fuel inlet stream followed by humidification of the combined fuel streams.

The system 300 may further include a system controller 225 configured to control various elements (e.g., blowers 182, 184 and 205 and the fuel control valve) of the system 300. The controller 225 may include a central processing unit configured to execute stored instructions. For example, the controller 225 may be configured to control fuel and/or air flow through the system 300, according to fuel composition data.

Referring to FIG. 3B, the central column may extend from a base 310 upon which one or more fuel cell stack 101 may be disposed. The fuel inlet conduit 111 and fuel exhaust conduit 153 may extend from the stack 101, through the base 310, to the column 301.

The column 301 may include cylindrical outer and inner walls that at least partially define an ATO 140. The fuel heat exchanger 121 may be disposed around the fuel reformer 123. An optional first additional WGS reactor 128A may be incorporated into the fuel heat exchanger 121 and/or the fuel reformer 123 by providing the WGS catalyst in the fuel heat exchanger 121 and/or the fuel reformer 123. The ATO 140 may surround the fuel heat exchanger 121. The fuel cell stack 101 may surround the ATO 140, and the air heat exchanger 127 (shown in FIG. 3A) may surround the fuel cell stack 101 in the hotbox 302.

The WGS reactor 128 is disposed above the fuel heat exchanger 121. The air preheater heat exchanger 125 is disposed above the WGS reactor 128. An optional second additional WGS reactor 128B may be incorporated into the air preheater heat exchanger 125 by providing the WGS catalyst in the air preheater heat exchanger 125.

The fuel exhaust conduit 153 may fluidly connect the fuel cell stack 101, the fuel heat exchanger 121, the WGS reactor 128, and the air preheater heat exchanger 125. Accordingly, a fuel exhaust stream output from the stack 101 may flow into the bottom of the column 301, along the outer surface of the fuel heat exchanger 121, and then may flow inside of the WGS reactor 128 and the air preheater heat exchanger 125, before exiting the top of the column 301.

The fuel inlet conduit 111 may fluidly connect the stack 101, the fuel heat exchanger 121, and the fuel reformer 123 to the fuel inlet. Accordingly, a fuel inlet stream may flow into the top of the column 301, and then be provided to the fuel heat exchanger 121 and the fuel reformer 123, before exiting the bottom of the column 301 and being provided to the stack 101.

For example, the fuel heat exchanger 121 may include a corrugated separator configured to separate the fuel inlet stream from the fuel exhaust stream. In some embodiments, a surface of the fuel heat exchanger 121 that contacts the fuel exhaust may be coated with a WGS catalyst, such that the fuel heat exchanger 121 may operate as a combined fuel heat exchanger 121 and WGS reactor 128A. In other words, the fuel heat exchanger 121 may operate to both transfer heat between the fuel inlet and fuel exhaust streams, as well as convert water and carbon monoxide in the fuel exhaust into free hydrogen and carbon dioxide. As such, an additional volume in the column 301 may be dedicated to WGS reactions, in order to increase WGS reactivity.

In some embodiments, the column 301 may include the splitter 201 configured to divert a portion of the fuel exhaust stream to the ATO 140. A remainder of the fuel exhaust stream may be cooled in the air preheater heat exchanger 125 to temperature compatible with any further processing. The air preheater heat exchanger 125 conduits which carry the fuel exhaust stream may optionally be coated in with a WGS catalyst to allow the air preheater heat exchanger 125 to perform as an optional second additional WGS reactor 128B, if further reduction in carbon monoxide content and conversion of water to hydrogen is desired.

Another optional embodiment shown in FIG. 3A includes an electrochemical pump separator 150 with an integrated third additional WGS reactor catalyst. In one aspect of this optional embodiment, the anode catalyst described above is also a WGS catalyst. In another aspect of this optional embodiment, the WGS catalyst may be coated on the entire anode of the electrochemical pump separator 150 or on a portion of the anode of the electrochemical pump separator 150. In another aspect of this optional another embodiment, the WGS catalyst is located in the same housing as the electrochemical pump separator 150 such that there is no air preheater heat exchanger 125 located between the electrochemical pump separator 150 and the WGS catalyst. For example, the WGS catalyst may be coated on a surface of the anode chamber of the housing containing the electrochemical pump separator 150, such that the fuel exhaust stream passes by the WGS reactor catalyst before reaching the anode of the electrochemical pump separator 150. The WGS reactor catalyst may comprise, PtRu, Cu, Cu—Zn, Cu—Zn—Al, Pt, Pt—Ni, Ni, Fe—Cr, or Fe—Cr—Cu. The WGS reactor catalyst may have an operating temperature of about 200-450° C., such as about 200-250° C., which may be desirable for maximizing conversion of carbon monoxide and water into usable hydrogen (plus waste carbon dioxide).

Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) Cells

Carbon monoxide (“CO”) is a poison for many hydrogen pump materials, substantially increasing the pumping voltage (power). Traditionally, binary catalysts, such as Pt—Ru, are employed for CO tolerance in proton exchange membrane (“PEM”, also known as polymer electrolyte membrane) fuel cells and exhibit suitable performance at CO concentrations of less than 100 ppm. However, the performance of such catalysts may be significantly degraded at higher CO concentrations. In addition, an air bleed is generally necessary to ensure stable performance.

Fuel cell systems, such as the systems of FIGS. 1, 2, 3A, and 3B may generate a fuel cell fuel exhaust stream that contains a significant fraction of CO, such as reformate from the steam-reformation of natural gas used as the fuel. For example, a fuel exhaust may have a CO concentration of above 100 ppm, such as 150 to 900 ppm.

Accordingly, various embodiments of the present disclosure provide a PEM cell that includes a membrane electrode assembly (MEA) that is capable of stably operating as a hydrogen pump, when supplied with a hydrogen-containing gas having CO concentration of above 100 ppm.

FIG. 4 is a cross-sectional view of a PEM electrochemical cell 400, according to various embodiments of the present disclosure. On or more of the PEM cells 400 may be included in the pump separators 150 of FIGS. 1, 2, and 3A.

Referring to FIG. 4, the PEM cell 400 may include a membrane electrode assembly (MEA) 410, which may be disposed between flow field plates 402 (e.g., bipolar plates). The MEA 410 may include a polymer electrolyte membrane 440 disposed between an anode 420 and a cathode 430. In some embodiments the anode 420 may include an anode gas diffusion layer (GDL) 426, and the cathode 430 may include a cathode GDL 436. The anode GDL 426 may be configured to distribute a hydrogen-containing gas, such a fuel cell fuel exhaust stream from the SOFC stack 101 shown in FIG. 3A, to the anode 420. The cathode GDL 436 may be configured to collect hydrogen which diffused from the anode 420 through the electrolyte membrane 440 to the cathode 430.

As discussed below in more detail, the anode 420 may include one or more layers of catalyst particles that are deposited on (e.g., loaded on and/or coated on) the anode GDL 426, and the cathode 430 may include one or more layers of catalyst particles that are deposited on (e.g., loaded on and/or coated on) the cathode GDL 436 to form respective gas diffusion electrodes (GDE). Accordingly, the anode 420 may be referred to as a gas diffusion anode 420, and the cathode 430 may be may be referred to as a gas diffusion cathode 430. Alternatively, the anode and/or the cathode catalyst particle layers may be deposited on the membrane 440 instead of the anode GDL 426 and the cathode GDL 436, and/or deposited on both the membrane 440 and at least one of the anode GDL 426 and the cathode GDL 436.

The flow field plates 402 may include an inlet flow field 404 configured to provide the hydrogen-containing gas to the anode GDL 426, and an outlet flow field 406 configured to receive hydrogen gas from the cathode GDL 436. In particular, the inlet flow field 404 and/or the outlet flow field 406 may include flow channels configured to control pressure and/or reactant concentrations at the membrane 440, in conjunction with the anode and cathode GDLs 426, 436.

The anode and cathode GDLs 426, 436 may be formed of materials configured to reduce mass transfer loss, provide high electrical conductivity, and effectively manage water transport. For example, the anode and cathode GDLs 426, 436 may include a porous base material, such as a porous carbon material, for example, carbon paper, carbon cloth, carbon felt, or a combination thereof, to provide electrical conductivity and effective mass transfer. The anode and/or cathode GDLs 426, 436 may also include a hydrophobic material, such as polytetrafluorethylene (PTFE). For example, the base material of the anode GDL 426 may be loaded with from about 5 weight percent (“wt %”) to about 50 wt %, such as from about 10 wt % to about 30 wt % PTFE.

In some embodiments, anode and cathode GDLs 426, 436 may optionally be in the form of, or include, a microporous layer. In various embodiments, the anode and cathode GDLs 426, 436 may include multiple stacked layers to match the functionalities of the anode 420 and the cathode 430. The anode and cathode GDLs 426, 436 may be formed from sheets, rolls, foils, or the like, according to the requirements of a manufacturing process.

In some embodiments, the anode 420 may include a microporous layer 428 deposited on a surface of the anode GDL 426 that faces the membrane 440. The microporous layer 428 may include a hydrophobic material, such as PTFE, or a mixture of a hydrophobic material and an electrically conductive material, such as carbon black. The microporous layer 428 may be configured to improve anode water management. In some embodiments, the anode 420 may include the anode GDL 426, the microporous layer 428 and a single anode layer (e.g., a single anode catalyst layer) 422 or 424. In another embodiment, the cathode 430 may also include a microporous layer in addition to the microporous layer 428 of the anode or instead of the microporous layer 428 of the anode.

The membrane 440 may include any suitable proton conducting membrane, such as a proton exchange membrane. The membrane 440 may include ionomers, such as a sulfonated tetrafluoroethylene based fluoropolymer-copolymer having a chemical formula: C₇HF₁₃O₅S.C₂F₄ sold under the brand name Nafion®. Alternatively, the membrane 440 may include a phosphoric acid membrane such as a polybenzimidazole (PBI)-based phosphoric acid membranes comprising poly-phosphoric acid and polybenzomidazole polymer), proton conducting oxides include phosphates such as LaPO₄, solid acids (such as cesium dihydrogen phosphate, CsH₂PO₄), and certain perovskite (ABO₃) materials such as perovskite type cerates, niobates, phosphates, gallates or zirconates, such as BaCeYO (BCO), BaZrYO (BZO), LaSrPO, BaCaNbO (BCN), LaCaNbO, or LaBaGaO (LBGO) those described in Chem. Soc. Rev., 2010, 39, 4370-4387, incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

The PEM cell 400 may be operated in a hydrogen pumping mode (i.e., as an electrolyzer), where an external voltage potential is applied between the anode 420 and cathode 430, while the fuel exhaust is provided to the anode side may dissociate into protons and electrons. The electrons may be externally routed to the cathode 430, and the protons may be transported (i.e., pumped) through the membrane 440 to the cathode 430, where the hydrogen ions recombine with electrons, resulting in hydrogen evolution.

The fuel cell exhaust provided to the cell 400 may have a CO concentration of above 100 ppm. Accordingly, the MEA 410 may be configured to tolerate such CO concentrations. In particular, the anode 420 may be configured to tolerate long term exposure to CO concentrations of above 100 ppm, without the need to utilize an air bleed. However, if desired, an air bleed may be added to the fuel exhaust provided to the anode 420.

According to various embodiments, the anode 420 and/or cathode 430 may include catalyst particles comprising one or more catalyst metals, such as Pt, Ru, Ni, Rh, Mo, Co, Ir, Fe, and/or other d block metals including partially filled 3d orbitals. For example, the catalyst particles may include elemental metals or alloys comprising Ag, Al, Au, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Ir, Mo, Ni, Pd, Pt, Ru, Rh, W, Zn, or any combination thereof. For example, the anode catalyst particles may include alloy catalyst such as Pt—Ru, Cu—Zn, Cu—Zn—Al, Pt—Ni, Fe—Cr, or Fe—Cr—Cu.

The catalyst particles may each include a single catalyst metal, or an alloy of catalyst metals. In some embodiments, the anode may include catalyst particles that may include different catalyst metals and different particle sizes. For example, the catalyst particles may range from several nanometers to less than a micron in average particle size. In some embodiments, the catalyst particles may include a core-shell configuration, with a catalyst metal shell and a different (e.g., less expensive) metal or material as a core, in order to improve catalytic efficiency and reduce costs.

In some embodiments, the anode 420 may include Pt as a primary catalyst for hydrogen pumping (e.g., proton generation) and may include Ru, Ni, Rh, etc. as a secondary catalyst for promoting the oxidation of CO and the suppression of the reverse water gas shift reaction of CO₂.

The anode 420 and/or cathode 430 may include one or more support materials that may be loaded with the catalyst particles. Catalyst support materials may be selected to provide for reduced catalysts loading, increased electrical conductivity, and better electrode printing characteristics. Common support materials may include carbon-based materials, such as carbon black (e.g., Vulcan XC 72R carbon powder, or a Ketjen Black powder), graphite powder, graphene, carbon nanotubes (CNTs), nano-horns, carbon fiber, carbon whiskers, or the like. In other embodiments, catalyst support materials may include non-carbon-based materials, such carbides, oxides, and nitrides of metals such as W, Ti, Mo, or the like.

In some embodiments, the anode and cathode 420, 430 may have a catalyst particle loading ranging from about 0.05 mg/cm² to about 3 mg/cm², such as from about 0.1 mg/cm² to about 2 mg/cm². In particular, the anode 420 may have a catalyst particle loading of from about 0.1 mg/cm², to about 3 mg/cm², such as from about 0.1 mg/cm², to about 2 mg/cm². The cathode 430 may have a catalyst particle loading ranging from about 0.05 mg/cm², to about 1 mg/cm², such as from about 0.05 mg/cm², to about 0.5 mg/cm².

In various embodiments, the anode 420 and/or cathode 430 may include a bonding agent. For example, the bonding agents may include a hydrophobic bonding agent such as PTFE and/or ionomer bonding agents such as Nafion®. The anode 420 and/or the cathode 430 may include from about 5 wt % to about 50 wt %, such as from about 10 wt % to about 40 wt %, or from about 10 wt % to about 30 wt %, of a bonding agent or combination of bonding agents.

According to various embodiments, the anode 420 may include a single layer or may be a multilayered anode including two, three, or more layers. For example, as shown in FIG. 4, the anode 420 may have a bilayer configuration including a first anode layer 422 (e.g., first anode catalyst sub-layer) contacting the anode GDL 426 and comprising first catalyst particles configured to preferentially catalyze the electrochemical oxidization of CO to form CO₂, and a second anode layer 424 (e.g., second anode catalyst sub-layer) contacting the membrane 440 and comprising second catalyst particles configured to preferentially catalyze the generation of hydrogen ions (i.e., protons) from H₂.

The first anode layer 422 may be bonded to the anode GDL 426, while the second anode layer 424 (e.g., second sub-layer) may be bonded to the membrane 440 in a bilayer anode 420. If additional anode layers are present in the anode 420, then the first anode layer 422 is generally located between the second anode layer 424 and the anode GDL 426, while the second anode layer 424 is generally located between the first anode layer 422 and the electrolyte membrane 440.

In some embodiments, the first anode layer 422 may have a higher catalyst particle loading than the second anode layer 424. In some embodiments, the loading amounts of the catalyst particles in the first and second anode layers 422, 424 may vary in a thickness direction perpendicular to the membrane 440.

In various embodiments, the first anode layer 422 may include the first catalyst particles and a hydrophobic bonding agent such as PTFE or the like. The hydrophobic bonding agent may be configured to control the water content of the first anode layer 422. For example, the first anode layer 422 may include from about 5 wt % to about 50 wt %, such as from about 10 wt % to about 40 wt %, or from about 10 wt % to about 30 wt %, of the hydrophobic bonding agent such as PTFE.

The first catalyst particles may include catalyst metals or metal alloys as described above. For example, the first catalyst particles may comprise a Pt—Ru alloy particles having a Pt:Ru atomic ratio ranging from about 60:40 to about 40:60, or about 50:50. In some embodiments, the first anode layer 422 may include the first catalyst particles, such as Pt—Ru alloy particles, at a loading ranging from about 0.3 mg/cm² to about 1.2 mg/cm², such as from about 0.8 mg/cm² to about 1.2 mg/cm², from about 0.9 mg/cm² to about 1.1 mg/cm², or about 1 mg/cm².

The first anode layer 422 may be configured to preferentially oxidize carbon monoxide via, for example, the water gas shift reaction. Accordingly, the first anode layer may be configured to reduce CO poisoning of the second anode layer 424.

The second anode layer 424 may include second catalyst particles having a composition different from the first catalyst particles and an ionomer bonding agent. The second catalyst particles may include catalyst metals or metal alloys as described above. For example, the second catalyst particles may comprise a Pt—Ru alloy particles having a Pt:Ru atomic ratio ranging from about 55:45 to about 70:30, or about 66:33. In one embodiment, if both the first and the second anode layers comprise the Pt—Ru alloy catalyst particles, then the Pt—Ru catalyst particles in the second anode layer 424 may have a higher Pt:Ru atomic ratio than the Pt—Ru catalyst particles in the first anode layer 422. The second anode layer 424 may include an ionomer bonding agent such as Nafion®. However, the present disclosure is not limited to any particular ionomer bonding agent. In various embodiments, the second anode layer 424 may include the second catalyst particles, such as Pt—Ru alloy particles, at a loading ranging from about 0.3 mg/cm² to about 1.2 mg/cm², such as from about 0.5 mg/cm² to about 0.9 mg/cm², from about 0.6 mg/cm² to about 0.8 mg/cm², or about 0.7 mg/cm².

In some alternative embodiments, the first and second anode layers 422, 424 may include catalyst particles having similar Pt:Ru atomic ratios or the same Pt:Ru atomic ratio. For example, the first and second anode layers 422, 424 may include catalyst particles having a Pt:Ru atomic ratio ranging from about 90:10 to about 10:90, such as from about 80:20 to about 20:80, or from about 70:30 to about 30:70.

The cathode 430 may include a third catalyst layer 432 disposed on a between the cathode GDL 436 and the membrane 440. The third catalyst layer 432 may include third catalyst particles and an ionomer bonding agent. The third catalyst particles may include catalyst metals or metal alloys as described above. For example, the third catalyst particles may include Pt or a Pt alloy. The third catalyst layer 432 may also include a catalyst support comprising a carbon-based material or a metal oxide, nitride, or carbide material, as described above. In some embodiments the third catalyst layer 432 may include Pt catalyst particles supported by a carbon-based material and bonded with an ionomer bonding agent, such as Nafion®. The third catalyst layer 432 may include the third catalyst particles, such as Pt particles, at a loading ranging from about 0.025 mg/cm² to about 0.75 mg/cm², such as from about 0.05 mg/cm² to about 0.5 mg/cm².

When a voltage potential is applied between the cathode 430 and the anode 420, the second anode layer 424, the membrane 440, and the cathode 430 may be configured to operate as a hydrogen pump. In particular, hydrogen ions generated at the second anode layer 424 may be transported through the membrane 440 by a potential difference applied between the anode 420 and the cathode 430, and the hydrogen ions may then be recombined in the cathode 430 to generate hydrogen gas (H₂).

In other embodiments, the anode 420 may include a single layer structure including the first catalyst particles, the second catalyst particles, the ionomer, and PTFE. For example, the anode 420 may include the microporous layer 428 and a single catalyst layer (422 or 424) disposed between the microporous layer 428 and the membrane 440. Relative amounts of the first catalyst particles and the second catalyst particles vary from 0:1 to 1:0, in a thickness direction of the anode 420, taken in a direction perpendicular to a plane of the membrane 440. For example, the anode 420 may have a relatively high concentration of the first catalyst particles adjacent to the anode GDL 426 and a relatively low concentration of the first catalyst particles adjacent to the membrane 440, and the anode 420 may have a relatively high concentration of the second catalyst particles adjacent to the membrane 440 and a relatively low concentration of the second catalyst particles adjacent to the anode GDL 426. In other words, the relative amounts of Pt and Ru in the anode 420 may vary in the thickness direction of the anode 420, such that the anode 420 has a lower Pt:Ru ratio adjacent to the anode GDL 426 and a higher Pt:Ru ratio adjacent to the membrane 440. For example, the Pt:Ru ratio may range from 90:10 to 10:90, in the thickness direction, in some embodiments.

In some embodiments, the relative amounts of the ionomer and PTFE may vary from 0:1 to 1:0, in a thickness direction of the anode 420, taken in a direction perpendicular to a plane of the membrane 440. In some embodiments, the anode 420 may include a 50:50 weight ratio of ionomer and PTFE. The ionomer and PTFE may be bonded together as a dual bonding agent. The anode 420 may optionally include a micro porous layer including PTFE and/or an ionomer.

In various embodiments, at least one of the anode 420 and/or the cathode 430 catalyst layers 422, 424 and 432, respectively, may be formed by depositing corresponding anode and/or cathode inks on the respective anode and cathode GDLs 426, 436 to form respective GDEs. If the microporous layer 428 is present, then the anode catalyst layer or layers 422 and/or 424 may be deposited on the microporous layer 428. Alternatively, the inks may be deposited on the membrane 440 and/or the inks may be deposited on both the membrane 440 and the respective GDL 426, 436 (or the microporous layer 428 if present on the anode GDL 426). The inks may each include catalyst particles, a bonding agent, and a solvent. The anode and cathode inks may be deposited by, for example, by roll coating, printing, or spraying the inks on substrates, such as a corresponding anode or cathode GDL 426, 436, the microporous layer 428 and/or the membrane 440.

In various embodiments, the anode and cathode inks may be heat-treated to bond the catalyst particles and/or the bonding agents thereof, to sinter the catalyst particles, and/or to remove the solvents included in the corresponding anode and cathode inks, and thereby form the anode 420 and cathode 430 catalyst layers 422, 424 and 432, respectively. The heat-treatment may be performed at a temperature ranging between about 60° C. and about 400° C., such as between about 250° C. and about 400° C., in order to form a desired electrode structure.

For example, electrode inks that include a bonding agent comprising an ionomer, such as inks used to form the cathode 430 catalyst layer 432 and the second anode layer 424, may be heat-treated at a temperature ranging from about 50° C. to about 80° C., such as from about 60° C. to about 70° C. Electrode inks that include a bonding agent comprising PTFE, such as an ink used to form the first anode layer 422, may be heat-treated at a temperature ranging from about 280° C. to about 420° C., such as from about 300° C. to about 400° C. In electrode inks that include dual bonding agents, such as an ionomer and PTFE, the heat treatment may be performed at a temperature ranging from about 230° C. to about 420° C., such as from about 250° C. to about 400° C.

For example, the first anode layer 422 containing a PTFE bonding agent may be deposited on the anode GDL 426 (or on the microporous layer 428 if present) and then heat treated at a relatively high first temperature about 280° C. to about 420° C., such as from about 300° C. to about 400° C. After the heat treatment, the second anode layer 424 may be deposited on the first anode layer 422 and then heat treated at relatively low second temperature which is lower than the first temperature. The second temperature may be about 50° C. to about 80° C., such as from about 60° C. to about 70° C. The anode GDL 426 containing the two anode layers (422 and 424) is then bonded (e.g., hot pressed) to the electrolyte membrane 440 such that the second anode layer 424 faces (e.g., contacts) the electrolyte membrane 440.

In various embodiments, the heat treatment may be conducted in an inert atmosphere. In other embodiments, the heat treatment may be performed in an active atmosphere (e.g., a reducing or oxidizing atmosphere), in order to activate the catalyst particles.

In some embodiments, a bonding agent, such as an ionomer and/or PTFE, may be sprayed on top of a catalyst particle layer, such that the bonding agent percolates through the catalyst particles and increase a triple-phase boundary. A portion of the bonding agent may remain on top of the catalyst particle layer and may form a compatibility layer that increases the compatibility with a subsequently deposited anode sub-layer. For example, the second anode layer 424 may be formed by depositing an ionomer on a catalyst layer, such that a portion of the ionomer forms a compatibility layer to increase adhesion with the first anode layer 422 that may be subsequently formed or disposed thereon.

In some embodiments, electrode layers that include an ionomer as a bonding agent, such as the cathode 430 and the second anode layer 424, may be manufactured on separate supports. The second anode layer 424 may be removed from the support and applied/bonded to the first anode layer 422 by a decal lamination process, after the first anode layer 422 is bonded to the anode GDL 426 (or the microporous layer 428 on the anode GDL 426, if present). In other embodiments, the second anode layer 424 may be removed from the support and applied/bonded to the membrane 440, by a decal lamination process. In some embodiments, the cathode 430 may be removed from the support and applied/bonded to the cathode GDL 436 by a decal lamination process.

In other embodiments, the second anode layer 424 and/or the cathode 430 catalyst layer 432 may be removed from their respective supports and bonded to opposing sided of the membrane 440. The first anode layer 422 may be bonded to the anode GDL 426, and then disposed on the second anode layer 424, by disposing the anode GDL 426 on the membrane 440, and the cathode GDL 436 may be disposed on the cathode 430 catalyst layer 432.

In other embodiments, the anode 420 may be formed by depositing the second anode ink on the membrane 440, and then drying and sintering the second anode ink to form the second anode layer 424, which may be bonded the membrane 440. The first anode ink may be deposited on the second anode layer 424 or on an anode side of the anode GDL 426 (or the microporous layer 428, if present), and then dried and sintered to form the first catalyst layer 422, which may be bonded to the second anode layer 424 or to the anode GDL 426. The cathode 430 catalyst layer 432 may be formed by depositing the cathode ink on the cathode GDL 436 or a cathode side of the membrane 440.

In various embodiments, the cell 400 may include gaskets 450 disposed on opposing sides of the MEA 410. For example, the gaskets 450 may be disposed in grooves formed in the flow field plates 402. The gaskets 450 may be formed of PTFE, ethylene propylene diene monomer (EPDM) rubber, silicon, fluorinated-silicon, fluorine rubber, fluorinated carbon-based synthetic rubber, or the like. The gaskets 450 may be flat gaskets or may be formed by dispensing a gasket material using a liquid injection molding process or the like.

In various embodiments, the MEA 410 may include one or more optional sub-gaskets 452. The sub-gaskets 452 may be disposed on the membrane 440 and may be configured to at least partially define an active area of the membrane 440. The sub-gaskets 452 may be single or multi-layered structures that are bonded to the membrane 440. For example, the sub-gaskets 452 may be mechanically bonded, thermally bonded, or adhesion bonded to the membrane 440 and/or the anode and cathode 420, 430. The sub-gaskets 452 should be formed of a material that is compatible with the gaskets 450 and membrane 440 under operating conditions. For example, the sub-gaskets 452 may be formed of PTFE, polyamide, polyimide, polyphenylene sulfide, polyethylene napthalate, polysulfone, polysupersulfone, polyethylene terephthalate, or the like. The thickness of the sub-gaskets 452 may be determined in conjunction with the thicknesses of other elements of MEA 410, such as the thicknesses of the membrane 440, anode and cathode GDLs 426, 436, anode 420, cathode 430, and gaskets 450.

In various embodiments, the MEA 410 may be assembled and then hot-pressed to bond the membrane 440, anode 420, cathode 430, anode and cathode GDL layers 426, 436, and/or sub-gaskets 452. The hot-pressing may be performed at a temperature and pressure sufficient to bond the layers of the MEA 410, without compromising the characteristics of the membrane 440 and the anode and cathode GDLs 426, 436. For example, the MEA 410 may be hot-pressed at a temperature ranging from about 40° C. to about 160° C., such as from about 60° C. to about 140° C., and at a pressure ranging from about 15 kg/cm² to about 75 kg/cm², such as from about 25 kg/cm² to about 60 kg/cm². The hot-pressing may be performed for a duration ranging from about 30 seconds to about 15 minutes, such as from about 1 minute to about 10 minutes. In some embodiments, the hot-pressing may be configured to convert the membrane 440 into a sodium form, in order to improve membrane stability.

FIG. 5 is a sectional view of a pump separator 150 including an electrochemical cell stack 500, according to various embodiments of the present disclosure. Referring to FIG. 5, the stack 500 may be disposed inside of a housing of the pump separator 150 and may include MEAs 410 separated by flow field plates 402, as shown in FIG. 4. In addition, the stack 500 may include end plates 408 disposed on MEAs 410 disposed on opposing ends of the stack 500. The end plates 408 may be similar to the flow field plates 402, except that the end plates 408 each include only an inlet flow field 404 or an outlet flow field 406.

A voltage or current source 502 may be electrically connected to the stack 500. In particular, the voltage or current source 502 may be electrically connected to the end plates 408, and may be configured to apply a voltage potential or a current across the MEAs 410.

FIG. 6 illustrates a method 600 of forming a membrane electrode assembly (MEA), according to various embodiments of the present disclosure. At 610, method 600 deposits a first anode ink on an anode gas diffusion layer (GDL), the anode ink comprising first catalyst particles and a first bonding agent. Next, at 620, method 600 heat-treats the first anode ink to form a first anode layer bonded to the anode GDL. Lastly, method 600 hot-presses the anode GDL to an anode side of a proton exchange membrane, at 630.

Method 630 may further deposit a cathode ink on a cathode GDL or a cathode side of the proton exchange membrane, the cathode ink comprising cathode catalyst particles and a cathode bonding agent, and heat-treat the cathode ink to form a cathode layer bonded to the cathode GDL or the cathode side of the proton exchange membrane, and hot-press the cathode GDL to the cathode side of the proton exchange membrane.

The method 600 may further deposit a second anode ink on the first anode layer or the anode side of the proton exchange membrane, the second anode ink comprising second catalyst particles and a second bonding agent, and heat-treat the second anode ink to form a second anode layer bonded to the first anode layer or the anode side of the proton exchange membrane, prior to the step of hot-pressing, wherein the first catalyst particles are configured to preferentially catalyze oxidation of carbon monoxide; and the second catalyst particles are configured to preferentially catalyze generation of hydrogen ions.

In some instances, the second anode layer is located between the first anode layer and the membrane, the first catalyst particles comprise a first Pt—Ru alloy, the second catalyst particles comprise a second Pt—Ru alloy having a higher Pt:Ru ratio than the first Pt—Ru alloy, the first bonding agent comprises polytetrafluorethylene (PTFE), the second bonding agent comprises an ionomer, the first anode layer comprises the first catalyst particles at a loading ranging from about 0.8 mg/cm² to about 1.2 mg/cm², the second anode layer comprises the second catalyst particles at a loading ranging from about 0.5 mg/cm² to about 0.9 mg/cm², and the loading of the first catalyst particles is higher than the loading of the second catalyst particles.

The fuel cell systems and components described herein may have other embodiments and configurations, as desired. Other components may be added if desired. Furthermore, it should be understood that any system element or method step described in any embodiment and/or illustrated in any figure herein may also be used in systems and/or methods of other suitable embodiments described above, even if such use is not expressly described.

The foregoing description of the invention has been presented for purposes of illustration and description. It is not intended to be exhaustive or to limit the invention to the precise form disclosed, and modifications and variations are possible in light of the above teachings or may be acquired from practice of the invention. The description was chosen in order to explain the principles of the invention and its practical application. It is intended that the scope of the invention be defined by the claims appended hereto, and their equivalents. 

What is claimed is:
 1. A carbon monoxide (CO) tolerant membrane electrode assembly (MEA) comprising: an ionically-conductive proton exchange membrane; an anode contacting a first side of the membrane and comprising an anode gas diffusion layer (GDL), a hydrophobic bonding agent, an ionomer bonding agent, first catalyst particles, and second catalyst particles; and a cathode contacting a second side of the membrane and comprising third catalyst particles and a cathode GDL; wherein: the first catalyst particles are configured to preferentially catalyze oxidation of CO; and the second catalyst particles are configured to preferentially catalyze generation of hydrogen ions.
 2. The MEA of claim 1, wherein the anode comprises: a first anode layer comprising the first catalyst particles and the hydrophobic bonding agent; and a second anode layer comprising the second catalyst particles and the ionomer bonding agent, wherein the second anode layer is located between the first anode layer and the membrane.
 3. The MEA of claim 2, wherein: the first catalyst particles comprise a first Pt—Ru alloy; and the second catalyst particles comprise a second Pt—Ru alloy having a higher Pt: Ru ratio than the first Pt—Ru alloy.
 4. The MEA of claim 3, wherein: the first anode layer is bonded to the anode GDL; the second anode layer is bonded to the first anode layer and to the membrane; the first Pt—Ru alloy has a Pt:Ru ratio ranging from about 60:40 to about 40:60; and the second Pt—Ru alloy has a Pt:Ru ratio ranging from about 55:45 to about 70:30.
 5. The MEA of claim 3, wherein: the first Pt—Ru alloy has a Pt:Ru ratio of about 50:50; and the second Pt—Ru alloy has a Pt:Ru ratio of about 66:33.
 6. The MEA of claim 2, wherein: the hydrophobic bonding agent comprises polytetrafluorethylene (PTFE); the first anode layer comprises the first catalyst particles at a loading ranging from about 0.8 mg/cm² to about 1.2 mg/cm²; the second anode layer comprises the second catalyst particles at a loading ranging from about 0.5 mg/cm² to about 0.9 mg/cm²; and the loading of the first catalyst particles is higher than the loading of the second catalyst particles.
 7. The MEA of claim 6, wherein the cathode includes the third catalyst particles at a loading ranging from about 0.025 mg/cm² to about 0.75 mg/cm².
 8. The MEA of claim 1, wherein the anode further comprises a microporous layer disposed on a surface of the anode GDL that faces the membrane, the microporous layer comprising a carbon material and a hydrophobic material.
 9. The MEA of claim 8, wherein the microporous layer comprises a mixture of carbon black and polytetrafluorethylene (PTFE).
 10. The MEA of claim 1, wherein: the anode has a single-layer structure; the anode has a relatively high concentration of the first catalyst particles adjacent to the anode GDL and a relatively low concentration of the first catalyst particles adjacent to the membrane; and the anode has a relatively high concentration of the second catalyst particles adjacent to the membrane and a relatively low concentration of the second catalyst particles adjacent to the anode GDL.
 11. The MEA of claim 10, wherein: the first catalyst particles comprise a first Pt—Ru alloy; and the second catalyst particles comprise a second Pt—Ru alloy having a higher Pt: Ru ratio than the first Pt—Ru alloy.
 12. The MEA of claim 10, wherein: the hydrophobic bonding agent comprises polytetrafluorethylene (PTFE); the anode has a relatively high PTFE concentration adjacent to the anode GDL and a relatively low PTFE concentration of the PTFE adjacent to the membrane; and the anode has a relatively high concentration of the ionomer bonding agent adjacent to the membrane and a relatively low concentration of the ionomer bonding agent adjacent to the anode GDL.
 13. The MEA of claim 1, wherein the cathode comprises: the third catalyst particles; an ionomer bonding agent; and a catalyst support.
 14. The MEA of claim 13, wherein: the catalyst support comprises a carbon material, a metal oxide, a metal nitride, or a metal carbide; and the third catalyst particles comprise Pt.
 15. An electrochemical pump separator, comprising: a plurality of MEAs of claim 1 disposed in a stack; flow field plates disposed between the plurality of MEAs; end plates disposed on opposing ends of the stack; and a voltage or current source electrically connected to the end plates.
 16. A solid oxide fuel cell system, comprising: the electrochemical pump separator of claim 15; a solid oxide fuel cell stack; a fuel inlet conduit configured to provide a fuel to a fuel inlet of the solid oxide fuel cell stack; a fuel exhaust conduit that operatively connects a fuel exhaust outlet of the solid oxide fuel cell stack to an anode inlet of the electrochemical pump separator; and a product conduit which operatively connects a cathode outlet of the electrochemical pump separator to the fuel inlet conduit.
 17. A method of forming a membrane electrode assembly (MEA), comprising: depositing a first anode ink on an anode gas diffusion layer (GDL), the anode ink comprising first catalyst particles and a first bonding agent; heat-treating the first anode ink to form a first anode layer bonded to the anode GDL; and hot-pressing the anode GDL to an anode side of a proton exchange membrane.
 18. The method of claim 17, further comprising: depositing a cathode ink on a cathode GDL or a cathode side of the proton exchange membrane, the cathode ink comprising cathode catalyst particles and a cathode bonding agent; heat-treating the cathode ink to form a cathode layer bonded to the cathode GDL or the cathode side of the proton exchange membrane; and hot-pressing the cathode GDL to the cathode side of the proton exchange membrane.
 19. The method of claim 17, further comprising: depositing a second anode ink on the first anode layer or the anode side of the proton exchange membrane, the second anode ink comprising second catalyst particles and a second bonding agent; and heat-treating the second anode ink to form a second anode layer bonded to the first anode layer or the anode side of the proton exchange membrane, prior to the step of hot-pressing, wherein: the first catalyst particles are configured to preferentially catalyze oxidation of carbon monoxide; and the second catalyst particles are configured to preferentially catalyze generation of hydrogen ions.
 20. The method of claim 19, wherein: the second anode layer is located between the first anode layer and the membrane; the first catalyst particles comprise a first Pt—Ru alloy; the second catalyst particles comprise a second Pt—Ru alloy having a higher Pt:Ru ratio than the first Pt—Ru alloy; the first bonding agent comprises polytetrafluorethylene (PTFE); the second bonding agent comprises an ionomer; the first anode layer comprises the first catalyst particles at a loading ranging from about 0.8 mg/cm² to about 1.2 mg/cm²; the second anode layer comprises the second catalyst particles at a loading ranging from about 0.5 mg/cm² to about 0.9 mg/cm²; and the loading of the first catalyst particles is higher than the loading of the second catalyst particles.
 21. The MEA of claim 2, wherein the first and second catalyst particles comprise a Pt—Ru alloy having a Pt:Ru ratio ranging from about 90:10 to about 10:90.
 22. The MEA of claim 2, wherein: the first anode layer comprises the first catalyst particles at a loading ranging from about 0.3 mg/cm² to about 1.2 mg/cm²; and the second anode layer comprises the second catalyst particles at a loading ranging from about 0.3 mg/cm² to about 1.2 mg/cm².
 23. The MEA of claim 22, wherein the loading of the first catalyst particles is the same as the loading of the second catalyst particles. 